Nuclear Structure of India

Introduction

Every country is handling nuclear power, and certain specific departments of the countries have the powers or the rights to handle or deal with those kinds of matters which are used for electricity generation and developing more efficient utilization of nuclear fuel for self-sustainability to support carbon emission reduction, climate change and reduce global warming. 

Table of Contents:

1. Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)
• Intuitions under DAE
• Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
• Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL)
• Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI)
• Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL)
• Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC)
• Heavy Water Board (HWB)
• Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) 
2. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 
3. Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)

1. Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) 

The DAE is the umbrella that oversees all nuclear technology matters in India.  This includes research and development organisations, public sector undertakings, industrial facilities, grant-in-aid organisations and service organisations (see below), as well as nuclear power plants. The DAE was set up in the year 1954 under the direct charge of the Prime Minister.

2. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) 

The Atomic Energy Commission, or AEC, was established in 1958. It is responsible for implementing government policy in all matters concerning atomic energy, as well as creating policies and preparing annual budgets for the DAE.  The AEC has been awarded the full powers of the Government of India to carry out the work of the DAE, with the single exception of its budget, which must be approved by Parliament.  Once its budget is passed, the AEC is not required to consult with or report to Parliament for any of its actions.

3. Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) 

The AERB is India’s nuclear safety organisation, created in 1983 to ensure that the use of ionising radiation and nuclear energy in India does not cause undue risk to health or the environment.  Its actions are derived from the Atomic Energy Act of 1962, and the Environmental (Protection) Act of 1986. The AERB is responsible for monitoring all of the nuclear matters that fall under the DAE.  It reports to the AEC.

Any safety and regulatory body should be independent, and indeed the AERB is intended to be so. However, its ability to act independently is compromised by the fact that it is both funded and provided technical staff by the DAE, which means it is controlled in both administration and finance by the nuclear establishment it is supposed to be regulating.  The secretary of the DAE is also always the chairman of the AEC; a cross-link that undermines any authority the AERB would have to report violations.

The AERB is also grossly understaffed. It is currently responsible for overseeing the design and construction of five reactors and the safe operations of twenty already-established reactors, as well as regulation at all other nuclear facilities in the country.  That includes the safe operation of 2409 radiation facilities such as the university research department that sent a cobalt-60 source to a scrapyard in Delhi in 2009.  It has a mere 215 employees.

Institutions under the DAE 

Some of the institutions under the DAE are:

• Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) - India's primary nuclear research facility, based in Mumbai. It has a number of nuclear reactors, which are stated to be used only for India's nuclear power and research programme.

• Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) – a public service undertaking under the administrative control of the DAE. NPCIL is responsible for implementing and operating the nuclear power reactors in the country. Currently, it operates twenty reactors across India (see map).

• Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI) - established in 2003 for the construction, commissioning and operation of fast breeder reactors in India. Fast breeder reactors fall into the second stage of India’s three-stage programme. (make the red text a link to more info on the 3-stage programme)

• Uranium Corporation of India Limited (UCIL) – a public service undertaking under the administrative control of the DAE. UCIL is responsible for the mining and milling of uranium ore in India. The firm operates mines at Jadugoda and several other places in Jharkhand.

• Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) - an industrial unit of the DAE. It supplies nuclear fuel bundles and reactor core components. The facility manufactures natural and enriched uranium fuel, zirconium alloy cladding and reactor core components.

• Heavy Water Board (HWB) – an industrial unit of the DAE. It is primarily responsible for the production of heavy water (deuterated water, D2O), which is used as a 'moderator' and 'coolant' in nuclear reactors.

• Electronics Corporation of India Limited (ECIL) – produces electronics for India’s nuclear sector.  This includes control and instrumentation products for nuclear reactors, integrated security systems for nuclear installations and instruments for measuring radiation.

Shrouded in secrecy: the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 

The nuclear establishment in India is protected by the Atomic Energy Act of 1962, but this policy framework is unjustified for a civilian nuclear sector devoted to generating electricity.  Under the provisions of the act, the government is permitted to deny information to citizens requesting details of nuclear power plants or nuclear material being used for research or industrial purposes.  In line with this, the DAE does not proactively disclose details of safety measures at nuclear power plants, or of accidents which may occur. Requests for these details from DAE are more often than not denied citing sections 8 and/or 9 of the Act.

The 1962 Act places all activities to do with nuclear energy under the sole authority of the chairman of the AEC. This includes initiating, executing and promoting atomic energy, controlling its exploration, planning and manufacturing all atomic material and any related hardware in India, and all nuclear research and developmental activities.  

Section 03 of the 1962 Atomic Energy Act awards various powers concerning nuclear energy to Central Government, including:

(c) to declare as “restricted information" any data not so far published or otherwise made public relating to -

1. the location, quality and quantity of prescribed substances and transactions for their acquisition, whether by purchase or otherwise, or disposal, whether by sale or otherwise;
2. the processing of prescribed substances and the extraction or production of fissile materials from them;
3. the theory, design, construction and operation of plants for the treatment and production of any of the prescribed substances and for the separation of isotopes;
4. the theory, design, construction and operation of nuclear reactors; and
5. research and technological work on materials and processes involved in or derived from items (i) to (iv);

(d) to declare as a "prohibited area" any area or premises where work including research, design or development is carried on in respect of the production, treatment, use, application or disposal of atomic energy or of any prescribed substance;

Key Questions

Q1. “While we pursue the three-stage development path, we have to remain aware of the rapidly increasing electricity generation needs. For nuclear power to play its due role, its rate of deployment has to be much faster. Only then can we expect to enhance the share of nuclear power.” Anil Kakodkor, Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission.

This is crux of the problem with India’s civilian nuclear sector. Irrespective of the three-stage indigenous programme (see below), India needs a lot of energy sources for its power requirements. That’s where foreign reactors fit in. The government is also selling nuclear as a “clean and benign” energy which is an answer to both India’s energy security and climate change.

Q2. What is the history of nuclear power in India?

India’s nuclear program was set up in 1948, with the introduction of an Atomic Energy Bill in the Constituent Assembly by India’s first prime minister. “If we are to remain abreast of the world…we must develop this atomic energy,” opined Jawaharlal Nehru.

The act gives “exclusive responsibility/rights” over atomic energy to the State, cutting off any possible opposition from the Indian people. However, it was only in 1969, with the help of the US that India was able to start its first reactor in Tarapur.

As a non-signee to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, India was excluded from international trading on nuclear commodities for many years.  Its nuclear power plants were therefore built largely without external help or consultation, and outside of the safety standards of the International Atomic Energy Agency.  The indigenous three-stage programme (details below) is a particular source of national pride.

In 2008, the international trading ban was lifted by the Nuclear Suppliers Group, opening the door for foreign countries that wished to trade nuclear equipment and fuel with India, fenced for civilian (non-weaponry) purposes.  Deals with the US, France and Russia swiftly followed, as well as with Canada, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Argentina, Namibia, South Korea and the UK.  Foreign nuclear corporations could now build reactors in India. 

Q3. Why is nuclear power directly under the Prime Minister’s Office?

In 1954, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up under the the direct charge of Prime Minister so that it is not answerable to cabinet or to parliament. This special status still exists and is uncalled for if a country has civilian nukes ambition.  See the the question below on the need for public debates on nuclear issues.

Q4. How many nuclear reactors does India have and how many are under construction?

India has twenty operational nuclear reactors in six states and seven under construction. The operational reactors produce 4780 MW and the ones under construction are 4354 MW (except fast breeder reactors).

Q5. What is India’s three-stage nuclear programme?

The three stages of handling the nuclear fuel for the production of electricity and plutonium are as follows:

1. Stage I: Envisages the construction of natural uranium, heavy water moderated and cooled pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs). Spent fuel from these reactors is reprocessed to obtain plutonium.
2. Stage-II: Envisages construction of fast breeder reactors (FBRs) fuelled by plutonium produced in Stage-I. These reactors would also breed U-233 from thorium.
3. Stage-III: Would comprise power reactors using U-233 / thorium as fuel.

Q6. Isn’t nuclear power a solution to climate change?

The reality is that nuclear power could, on the industry’s best estimates, make only a negligible contribution to CO2 reduction even in case of unprecedented massive growth. The expert committee on an integrated energy policy set up by the planning commission takes a dim view of nuclear power prospects. “Even if a 20-fold increase takes place in India’s nuclear capacity by 2031-32, the contribution of nuclear to the energy mix is at best expected to be 5-6 per cent.” That’s as optimistic as the draft report is willing to go. This tiny contribution would also come too late, given the fact that even in countries with established nuclear programs planning, licensing and connecting to the grid typically takes more than a decade. In contrast, construction time for a large wind turbine has fallen to two weeks, with an associated planning period of between one and two years.

Unfortunately, faced by what the nuclear industry is cleverly selling as a choice between ‘known’ technology (nuclear) and ‘unknown’ technology (a combined approach of renewable energy with energy efficiency), policy makers and investors alike are in grave danger of choosing the former. We invite them to look at the Energy Revolution, an energy roadmap for the future developed by Greenpeace. The in-depth document clearly describes the possibility of providing fast, reliable energy access to India’s population using a combination of renewable energy technology and energy efficiency. Nuclear power is a dangerous, expensive and time-consuming distraction from the real solution to climate change.

Q7. Which utility deals with nuclear power in India?

NPCIL is the only utility that deals with civilian nuclear power in India. Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited is a Public Sector Enterprise under the administrative control of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), Government of India. The company was registered as a Public Limited Company under the Companies Act of 1956 in September 1987, with the objective of operating atomic power stations and implementing atomic power projects for the generation of electricity, in pursuance of the schemes and programmes of the Government of India under the Atomic Energy Act.

Q8. What about the relative cost of nuclear power in India?

• Homi Bhabha (1958): “[in 10 to 15 years] the costs of [nuclear] power [would] compare with the cost of power from  very favourably conventional sources in many areas”
• M. R. Srinivasan (ex-AEC Chairman)(1985): “[nuclear power] compares quite favourably with coal-fired stations, but only if the coal station is located 800 km away from the pithead and in the 1990s would be even cheaper than coal-fired stations at pithead”
• Nuclear Power Corporation Study (1999) “Cost of nuclear electricity generation in India  remains competitive with thermal [electricity] for plants located about 1,200 km away from coal pit head when full credit is given to long term operating cost, especially in respect of fuel prices”

Q9. Aren’t Indian authorities very strict about adhering to cost estimates and timelines?

Nuclear reactors being built today are more expensive than those built previously. Many countries have seen nuclear construction programmes go considerably over budget. In India, completion costs of the last ten reactors have averaged at least three hundred per cent over budget. 

Q10. Does India have long term waste disposal policy?

India does not have a long term waste disposal policy.  When questioned about radioactive waste, Kakodkar (ex-AEC) said that no waste is released from nuclear power plants.  “There is no question of radioactive radiation at the site. Long-lived radioactivity comes only in a reprocessing plant not a power plant. The remaining waste is immobilised and then encapsulated for 30-40 years and we have the technology to do the same. In India, we do not bury the waste.”

Q11. Is there a need for public debates on issues that affect public health?

In other countries, public hearings are held before finalising the most appropriate site among the different alternatives, for which environmental impact statements are prepared and circulated among people well in advance. Unfortunately, Thereby the Atomic Energy Commission in India plays an apparently self-contradictory dual role, not only as the promoter of atomic energy but also as its regulator. There by, it yields to expediency. In a participatory democracy, the people for whose benefit the energy is intended must have a say in determining which alternate source of energy or which alternate location for a reactor, would be in the best interests of the nation.

Q12. What about a citizen’s right to information?

The public has no access to the details of even the routine releases from nuclear power plants. Similarly regarding accidents, while the ministers claim India’s record of safety is ‘very high,’ no detailed information is available to the public so that it can form its own opinion. There is no competent independent agency in the country which can look into the safety records of the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) and under the secrecy provisions of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, the Government refuses to give the public access to critical information.

Q13. How effective are our safety measures?

There have been numerous cases of fires and minor leakages in the reactors during the past years. In Bhaba Atomic Research Centre in Maharashtra, for example, a fountain was discovered in the back garden, due to a leak in the pipe that brought in seawater for cooling the plant. The water was found to be radioactive. It was later found that this three inch thick steel pipe had corroded over the years because of a leak in a different pipe, which had gone unchecked for at least twelve years. The other pipe carried radioactive waste. As result of this unrepaired leak, the soil, trees and land became contaminated with radioactive material.

In the Narora power plant, a large fire broke out in 1994. The apparent cause of the fire was that the blades in the turbines (provided by General Electric to Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited) were faulty. General Electric had reported this fact to BHEL, but the latter did not make the changes suggested by GE, as it would have meant extensive machining of parts. This chalta hai attitude is one of the most serious safety risk factors in India. After the Narora fire, other reactor turbines were checked, and the same fault was also found at Kalpakkam nuclear power plant.

Q14. Are we prepared for an emergency?

Most nuclear power plants are situated near the border between two states. In case of an emergency, there are no relevant preparation plans for the neighbouring state. In case of the need for evacuation, the plans cover a total distance of only 16 km. It is important to remember that the effects of radiation do not confine themselves to this distance. At Chernobyl the authorities had to evacuate people in a radius of 30 km from the reactor, and even then there were many ‘hot spots’ hundreds of kilometres distant. In the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011, an evacuation zone of 20 km was proposed, and those between 20 and 30 km from the plant told to stay indoors. 

An effective emergency plan should educate the public on what needs to be done in the case of an emergency.  In India, people seeking information are merely shunted between the plant authorities and the District Collector’s office.

Q15. India has earthquake zones. How does this fit with the nuclear power programme?

Nuclear facilities should not be constructed close to known seismic faults.  The Fukushima nuclear disaster occurred at a nuclear power plant that was designed as both earthquake and tsunami-proof, but it was not enough to prevent the escape of radioactive material into the environment and near nuclear melt-down.

The containment dome of the Kaiga nuclear power plant in Karnataka collapsed while under construction in 1994, casting heavy doubt on the reliability of India’s nuclear power constructions.

The government is now collaborating with French company AREVA to build the world’s largest nuclear park in Jaitapur, Maharashtra.  Under the national seismic classifications, Jaitapur is rated as a zone four of a possible five.  This correlates to a ‘High Damage Risk Zone’.  See our page on the Jaitapur power station for more information.

Q16. What about nuclear waste?

The radioactive waste from uranium mines near Jadugoda, like at Musabani, is directly dumped into the Suvarnarekha River. Similarly in Rawatbhata, Dr. Gadekar  came across a large number of coffee coloured beads near a stream close to a village. On inquiry, he found that these were organic resins used to absorb radioactive elements. This waste, which should remain confined to the premises of the power plant, is dumped near rainwater streams in April, so that the monsoon would provide a solution to the problem of radioactive waste disposal.

Reference:

1. http://www.greenpeace.org/india/en/What-We-Do/Nuclear-Unsafe/Nuclear-Power-in-India/Indian-Nuclear-Establishment (majority of the content)
2. Other multiple references to make the above article to understand the Structure of the Indian Nuclear centre. Content will be further be updated for better understanding